Socioecological Systems

Few ecosystems are free of extensive human influence. Landscapes change constantly from natural and anthropogenic drivers, and land use and land cover changes by humans have been identified as a primary effect of humans on natural systems. These changes underlie fragmentation and habitat loss, which are the greatest threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services. The complex interactions between development decisions and ecosystems, and how the consequences of these decisions may then influence human values and subsequent decisions is an important area of study. As reciprocal influences among humans and the climate, biota, and ecological goods and services of the world have become both stronger and more widely recognized, there has also been the acknowledgment that in the majority of ecosystems, structure and function are now determined primarily by human interactions, perceptions, and behaviors, so that nowadays it is more appropriate to think of social–ecological systems combining approaches from both environmental and social sciences.